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gS 0 0 588 768 rC
83 76 :M
f0_16 sf
(E)S
94 76 :M
f0_14 sf
-.019(XPECT)A
f0_16 sf
-.015(: A User-Centered Environment for the Development)A
118 100 :M
-.161(and Adap)A
185 100 :M
-.011(tation of Knowledge-Based Planning Aids)A
241 128 :M
f0_12 sf
-.017(William R. Swartout)A
263 143 :M
-.034(Yolanda Gil)A
185 156 :M
31.819 0 rm
f3_12 sf
(USC/Information Sciences Institute)S
228 168 :M
21.157 0 rm
(4676 Admiralty Way)S
213 180 :M
20.359 0 rm
(Marina del Rey, CA 90292)S
225 192 :M
14.199 0 rm
f4_12 sf
({swartout, gil}@isi.edu)S
143 228 :M
f0_10 sf
-.029(Abstract)A
52 239 :M
f1_10 sf
.63(E)A
f1_9 sf
.588(XPECT)A
f1_10 sf
1.911 .191( provides an environment for developing)J
52 250 :M
.067 .007(knowledge-based systems that allows end-users to add)J
52 261 :M
1.546 .155(new knowledge without needing to understand the)J
52 272 :M
1.476 .148(details of system organization and implementation.)J
52 283 :M
.543 .054(The key to E)J
f1_9 sf
.253(XPECT)A
f1_10 sf
.695 .069('s approach is that it understands)J
52 294 :M
1.417 .142(the structure of the knowledge-based system being)J
52 305 :M
.738 .074(built: how it solves problems and what knowledge it)J
52 316 :M
.699 .07(needs to support problem-solving. E)J
f1_9 sf
.206(XPECT)A
f1_10 sf
.456 .046( uses this)J
52 327 :M
.633 .063(information to guide users in maintaining the knowl-)J
52 338 :M
.011 .001(edge-based system. We have used E)J
f1_9 sf
(XPECT)S
f1_10 sf
( to develop)S
52 349 :M
-.022(a tool for evaluating transportation plans.)A
123 372 :M
f0_12 sf
-.023(1. Introduction)A
42 387 :M
f1_10 sf
.531 .053(To successfully attack the large scale, real world domains)J
42 398 :M
.51 .051(targeted by the ARPA/Rome Labs Planning Initiative co)J
275 398 :M
-.106(l-)A
42 409 :M
1.246 .125(laboration is required.  People and machines must work)J
42 420 :M
.204 .02(together to solve problems, each contributing what they do)J
42 431 :M
.706 .071(best. In addition to planning systems, other computerized)J
42 442 :M
1.492 .149(tools are needed to support that collaboration\321such as)J
42 453 :M
-.037(tools for evaluating and cr)A
147 453 :M
(i)S
150 453 :M
-.034(tiquing plans.)A
52 464 :M
.206 .021(In this paper we describe the )J
172 464 :M
(E)S
f1_9 sf
-.02(XPECT)A
f1_10 sf
-.017( knowledge acqu)A
275 464 :M
-.106(i-)A
42 475 :M
.766 .077(sition framework which we have used to construct a plan)J
42 486 :M
2.378 .238(evaluation tool, the COA Evaluator. This application)J
42 497 :M
2.611 .261(evaluates alternative military transportation plans for)J
42 508 :M
.75 .075(moving personnel and materiel from bases to crisis situa-)J
42 519 :M
.671 .067(tions.  It takes a high-level description of a possible plan,)J
42 530 :M
.29 .029(or course-of-action \(COA\),  and produces an evaluation of)J
42 541 :M
.331 .033(the plan from a logistics perspective.  The evaluation ind)J
275 541 :M
-.106(i-)A
42 552 :M
1.175 .118(cates, for example, how many logistic personnel will be)J
42 563 :M
.307 .031(required to execute it, and how long the plan will take \(the)J
42 574 :M
1.572 .157(closure date\). Using the evaluator, planners can decide)J
42 585 :M
-.011(which COA looks most attractive.)A
52 596 :M
1.85 .185(In complex, crisis planning domains, the knowledge)J
42 607 :M
.305 .031(based systems that are developed to support planning \(like)J
42 618 :M
1.286 .129(the COA Evaluator\) must be adaptable to meet the par-)J
42 629 :M
1.08 .108(ticulars of a given situation: no one can envision all the)J
42 640 :M
2.17 .217(situations in which these tools might be used, or the)J
42 651 :M
.02 .002(knowledge that would be needed to support them.  Because)J
42 662 :M
.445 .044(these tools will be used in crisis situations, we cannot rely)J
42 673 :M
.763 .076(on a phalanx of experienced knowledge engineers to per-)J
42 684 :M
.859 .086(form the modifications.  Instead, we must empower end-)J
307 227 :M
1.04 .104(users so that they will be able to adapt the tools to their)J
307 238 :M
-.053(needs.)A
317 249 :M
.087(E)A
f1_9 sf
.081(XPECT)A
f1_10 sf
.237 .024( is the framework for knowledge based systems)J
307 260 :M
1.022 .102(that we are developing to support knowledge acquisition)J
307 271 :M
.338 .034(and explanation.  A central idea behind E)J
f1_9 sf
.129(XPECT)A
f1_10 sf
.225 .023( is the no-)J
307 282 :M
.706 .071(tion that more powerful acquisition and explanation tools)J
307 293 :M
.353 .035(can be constructed if acquisition and explanation concerns)J
307 304 :M
.709 .071(are reflected in the structure of the knowledge based sy)J
539 304 :M
-.217(s-)A
307 315 :M
.646 .065(tems we create.  That is, rather than developing tools that)J
307 326 :M
1.333 .133(operate on conventional knowledge based systems, it is)J
307 337 :M
1.828 .183(first necessary to modify the architecture of the target)J
307 348 :M
.228 .023(knowledge based systems so that they will be structured in)J
307 359 :M
.628 .063(a way that provides better support for knowledge acquisi-)J
307 370 :M
.34 .034(tion and explanation.  It is then possible to build tools that)J
307 381 :M
1.623 .162(exploit this additional information to provide enhanced)J
307 392 :M
(capabilities.)S
317 403 :M
1.787 .179(In prior work on the EES framework [Neches et al,)J
307 414 :M
.623 .062(1985; Swartout et al., 1991] we explored the architectural)J
307 425 :M
2.373 .237(modifications that are needed to support explanation.)J
307 436 :M
(E)S
f1_9 sf
(XPECT)S
f1_10 sf
-.003( extends the EES framework to support knowledge)A
307 447 :M
1.575 .158(acquisition.  In this paper, we discuss the architectural)J
307 458 :M
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1.619 .162(realistically-sized knowledge-based systems use several)J
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307 623 :M
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.681 .068(knowledge.  Recent knowledge acquisition work [Klinker)J
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1.016 .102(et al. 1991; Musen and Tu 1993] has partially addressed)J
endp
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(3. )S
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1.404 .14(chitecture that directly support the acquisition goals we)J
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1.458 .146(outlined above. Most of the examples in this paper are)J
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1.023 .102(to understand exactly what the rule was supposed to do,)J
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np 294 582 :M
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np 290 572 :M
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1 G
np 289 573 :M
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np 285 573 :M
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np 287 573 :M
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.247 G
np 285 570 :M
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.624 G
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.874 G
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np 290 577 :M
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0 0 .502 :F
np 287 580 :M
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.498 G
np 286 576 :M
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np 290 576 :M
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1 G
np 289 587 :M
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.874 G
np 287 591 :M
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0 G
np 285 589 :M
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1 .624 .498 :F
np 285 589 :M
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np 284 591 :M
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1 G
np 285 589 :M
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.498 .373 .247 :F
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np 288 589 :M
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np 288 589 :M
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.247 G
288.5 584.5 0.5 @i
288.5 585.5 0.5 @i
288.5 586.5 0.5 @i
.874 G
288.5 584.5 0.5 @i
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275 592 -1 1 283 593 1 275 591 @a
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gS
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endp
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1.264 .126(effect of the modification might be. Although early cr)J
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(1)S
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1.205 .12(for inference.  Facts are represented as Loom )J
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(,)S
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(                                    )S
42 657.48 -.48 .48 186.48 657 .48 42 657 @a
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f1_7 sf
(1)S
45 672 :M
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277 680 :M
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3.374 .337(The classifier would figure out that an express-)J
307 98 :M
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307 109 :M
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.808 .081(Problem solving knowledge in E)J
f1_9 sf
.246(XPECT)A
f1_10 sf
.629 .063( is represented as)J
307 288 :M
.701 .07(strategies \(called )J
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.186(methods)A
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.683 .068(\) for achieving particular goals.)J
307 299 :M
.571 .057(Each method has a )J
389 299 :M
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.351 .035(capability description  )J
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.524 .052(associated with)J
307 310 :M
.822 .082(it, which states what the method can do \(e.g. \322evaluate a)J
307 321 :M
.535 .054(COA\323\), and a )J
368 321 :M
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.363 .036(method body )J
424 321 :M
f1_10 sf
.482 .048(that describes how to achieve)J
307 332 :M
.134 .013(the advertised capability of the method.  The steps can post)J
307 343 :M
.699 .07(further subgoals for the system to achieve.  The language)J
307 354 :M
.881 .088(used in the method bodies allows sequences of steps and)J
307 365 :M
-.028(conditional expressions.)A
317 376 :M
.373 .037(One of E)J
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.165(XPECT)A
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.503 .05(\325s architectural features that helps users)J
307 387 :M
.021 .002(make modifications to problem solving knowledge is a rich)J
307 398 :M
.826 .083(representation for goals and method capabilities that pro-)J
307 409 :M
.663 .066(vides an explicit representation of intent. This representa-)J
307 420 :M
.013 .001(tion makes it easier for people to understand what a method)J
307 431 :M
.143 .014(is supposed to be doing, and makes it easier for )J
502 431 :M
-.121(E)A
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-.112(XPECT)A
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-.101( to)A
307 442 :M
.065 .006(analyze a system\325s structure and hence provide guidance to)J
307 453 :M
-.042(a user in making modific)A
407 453 :M
-.231(ations.)A
317 464 :M
1.062 .106(In most programming languages, function names have)J
307 475 :M
.379 .038(no real semantics associated with them.  A good progra)J
535 475 :M
-.106(m-)A
307 486 :M
1.364 .136(mer may indicate what a function is supposed to do by)J
307 497 :M
.579 .058(giving it an appropriate name \(e.g. )J
454 497 :M
f7_10 sf
.027(clear-screen)A
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.06 .006(\) but)J
307 508 :M
.437 .044(as far as the system is concerned, the name is just a string)J
307 519 :M
1.01 .101(of characters.  Furthermore, the relationship between the)J
307 530 :M
.618 .062(function name \(what is to be done\) and the functional pa-)J
307 541 :M
1.178 .118(rameters \(the things that will be involved in doing it\) is)J
307 552 :M
.237 .024(completely implicit. AI systems such as planners provide a)J
307 563 :M
.314 .031(more explicit representation of what is to be done. Usually)J
307 574 :M
.863 .086(the goal is represented as some sort of state expressed in)J
307 585 :M
.819 .082(some form of predicate logic. A problem with this repre-)J
307 596 :M
1.051 .105(sentation that affects both acquisition and explanation is)J
307 607 :M
.127 .013(that it is removed from the way people think and talk about)J
307 618 :M
1.705 .171(what they are doing, since protocols of people solving)J
307 629 :M
.306 .031(problems show that they use verb clauses to describe what)J
307 640 :M
.295 .03(they are doing rather than state descriptions \(see for exam-)J
307 651 :M
-.022(ple, [Anzai and Simon 1979]\).)A
317 662 :M
1.026 .103(To address these difficulties and decrease the distance)J
307 673 :M
.11 .011(between )J
344 673 :M
(E)S
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.038(XPECT)A
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(\325)S
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(S )S
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.133 .013(internal representation and how people)J
307 684 :M
.221 .022(talk about what they do, E)J
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.091(XPECT)A
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.293 .029(\325s representation is based)J
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f1_10 sf
.902 .09(on a vocabulary of )J
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1.148 .115(verbs. )J
154 51 :M
f1_10 sf
.447 .045(In E)J
f1_9 sf
.211(XPECT)A
f1_10 sf
.586 .059(, we represent both)J
42 62 :M
.642 .064(goals \(what is to be done\) and method capability descri)J
273 62 :M
-.328(p-)A
42 73 :M
.222 .022(tions \(what a method can do\) using a verb clause represe)J
273 73 :M
-.328(n-)A
42 84 :M
.098 .01(tation based on case grammar. Each verb clause consists of)J
42 95 :M
.732 .073(a verb and a set of slots \(or \322cases\323\) that are the parame-)J
42 106 :M
.411 .041(ters. For example, the goal of evaluating a particular COA)J
42 117 :M
1.612 .161(is represented as a verb clause where the main verb is)J
42 128 :M
.537 .054(\322evaluate\323 and its \(direct\) object slot is filled by the COA)J
42 139 :M
(i)S
45 139 :M
-.022(nstance \(e.g., \322coa-3\323\) as follows:)A
52 152 :M
f7_9 sf
-.411(\(evaluate \(obj \(instance coa-3\)\)\))A
42 166 :M
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1.294 .129(The capability descriptions associated with methods are)J
42 177 :M
1.075 .108(represented similarly, except that they may contain vari-)J
42 188 :M
1.051 .105(ables.  For example, the following capability description)J
42 199 :M
.534 .053(would be associated with a method that has the capability)J
42 210 :M
-.011(to evaluate a course of action for force deployment:)A
52 223 :M
f7_9 sf
-.411(\(evaluate \(obj \(?c is \(instance-of)A
42 233 :M
-.41(                   deployment-coa\)\)\)\))A
42 247 :M
f1_10 sf
-.04(where:)A
52 260 :M
f7_9 sf
-.417(deployment-coa is a coa)A
42 270 :M
-.413(    that has force-movements)A
52 284 :M
f1_10 sf
( )S
55 284 :M
.58 .058(For matching, the goals and capability descriptions are)J
42 295 :M
1.629 .163(translated into corresponding Loom concepts. The goal)J
42 306 :M
.932 .093(above would match this capability description if )J
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.426(coa-3)A
42 317 :M
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.646 .065(had movements of forces, since )J
177 317 :M
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.772 .077(coa-3 )J
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.496 .05(would then be a)J
42 328 :M
-.101(kind of)A
71 328 :M
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( deployment-coa.)S
52 339 :M
f1_10 sf
.532 .053(This approach gives us a rich representation for what is)J
42 350 :M
.872 .087(intended by a goal and what the capabilities of a method)J
42 361 :M
.518 .052(are. Unlike the state-based representation, goals and capa-)J
42 372 :M
-.01(bilities can be easily paraphrased into natural language.)A
52 383 :M
1.231 .123(Figure 2 shows a simple method from our system for)J
42 394 :M
.358 .036(evaluating transportation plans. It finds the unloading time)J
42 405 :M
.224 .022(of a movement by calculating the unloading time of the set)J
42 416 :M
.099 .01(of available vehicles of the COA movement. There are two)J
42 427 :M
1.275 .127(things to notice about this method. First, it is relatively)J
42 438 :M
1.566 .157(straightforward to paraphrase the representations of the)J
42 449 :M
1.573 .157(capability description and the method body into under-)J
42 460 :M
.467 .047(standable natural language, because their structure mirrors)J
42 471 :M
.253 .025(natural language. Second, this method illustrates the use of)J
42 482 :M
1.724 .172(two general kinds of parameters that can be passed in)J
42 493 :M
.358(E)A
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.334(XPECT)A
f1_10 sf
.877 .088(. They distinguish between the kind of data that)J
42 504 :M
.647 .065(will be provided to the method and the kind of task to be)J
42 515 :M
.979 .098(accomplished by the method. They are indicated by )J
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.493(in-)A
42 526 :M
.071(stance-of)A
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.073 .007( or )J
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.071(specialization-of)A
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.178 .018( in the capability de-)J
42 537 :M
.024 .002(scription. These keywords indicate how the matcher should)J
42 548 :M
-.013(match these slots against the corresponding slots in goals.)A
52 559 :M
f7_9 sf
-.006(Instance-of)A
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-.004( indicates that the slot is a )A
218 559 :M
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.03 .003(data parameter)J
42 570 :M
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1.352 .135(and will match an instance of the indicated type. Thus,)J
42 581 :M
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1.566 .157(\(instance-of movement\))J
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.589 .059( will match a movement i)J
273 581 :M
-.328(n-)A
42 592 :M
.659 .066(stance or an instance that is more specialized. )J
236 592 :M
f7_9 sf
-.449(Instance-)A
42 603 :M
.357(of)A
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1.051 .105( slots work much like function parameters in conve)J
273 603 :M
-.328(n-)A
42 614 :M
1.031 .103(tional programming languages: they supply the data that)J
42 625 :M
.947 .095(the function manipulates. However, in E)J
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.297(XPECT)A
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.643 .064(, slots on)J
42 636 :M
.336 .034(goals do more than just provide data; they can also further)J
42 647 :M
.316 .032(specify the task to be done. )J
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.676 .068(Task parameters)J
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.412 .041( are indicated)J
42 658 :M
.417 .042(by )J
56 658 :M
f7_9 sf
-.019(specialization-of)A
f1_10 sf
-.014( slots and match against )A
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-.018(concepts)A
42 669 :M
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.106 .011(that appear in corresponding slots in the goal. For example,)J
42 680 :M
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-.335(\(specialization-of unloading-time\))A
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-.372( )A
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-.279(will match )A
263 680 :M
f7_10 sf
(un-)S
307 189 :M
1.012 .101(loading-time )J
f1_10 sf
.464 .046(or any of its specializations. The capa-)J
307 200 :M
.936 .094(bility description of the method in Figure 2 will match a)J
307 211 :M
-.054(goal such as:)A
307 224 :M
f7_9 sf
-.408(\(find \(obj \(specialization-of unloading-time\)\))A
307 234 :M
-.411(      \(of \(instance movement-23\)\)\))A
307 248 :M
f1_10 sf
-.023(or it will match the goal:)A
307 261 :M
f7_9 sf
-.413(\(find \(obj \(specialization-of)A
307 271 :M
-.409(             emergency-unloading-time\)\))A
307 281 :M
-.411(      \(of \(instance movement-23\)\)\))A
317 295 :M
f1_10 sf
.501 .05(Notice the \322obj\323 slot in both cases does not )J
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.168(supply)A
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.528 .053( data)J
307 306 :M
.646 .065(but instead it )J
365 306 :M
f2_10 sf
.164(specifies)A
f1_10 sf
.563 .056( the sort of information that is sup-)J
307 317 :M
-.002(posed to be found by the method. )A
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(Specialization-of)S
307 329 :M
f1_10 sf
.763 .076(slots add an additional dimension for method abstraction,)J
307 340 :M
.487 .049(allowing us to re-use the same method in several different)J
307 351 :M
.495 .05(contexts, and they are one of the ways we achieve \322loose-)J
307 362 :M
.981 .098(coupling\323 in E)J
f1_9 sf
.326(XPECT)A
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.754 .075(, which we will discuss in detail in)J
307 373 :M
.017 .002(Section 4.2. In the example in Figure 2, )J
469 373 :M
f7_10 sf
(?t )S
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-.009(is bound to the)A
307 384 :M
.664 .066(concept in the goal that matches )J
f7_9 sf
.27(\(specialization-of)A
307 395 :M
.307(unloading-time\))A
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.128(.)A
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.715 .071( The variable )J
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.341(?t)A
f1_10 sf
.616 .062( is then used in the)J
307 406 :M
(method body to pass the goal context on to subgoals so that)S
307 417 :M
1.859 .186(the method body will compute for example the )J
521 417 :M
f7_9 sf
-.498(emer-)A
307 428 :M
-.086(gency-unloading-time)A
f1_10 sf
-.062( rather than the )A
476 428 :M
f7_9 sf
-.429(unloading-time)A
307 439 :M
f1_10 sf
-.004(if emergency time was specified in the original goal.)A
317 450 :M
.663 .066(The key features of our goal representation are: 1\) it is)J
307 461 :M
.512 .051(structured, 2\) a richer representation for intent is provided)J
307 472 :M
.448 .045(because the structure is based on a verb clause representa-)J
307 483 :M
.226 .023(tion, and 3\) in addition to data parameters, task parameters)J
307 494 :M
-.029(are explicitly distinguished.)A
310 517 :M
f0_12 sf
-.007(4. Bringing Knowledge Back Together: Loose)A
375 531 :M
-.037(Coupling in  Expect)A
307 546 :M
f1_10 sf
2.179 .218(We have argued that by separating different kinds of)J
307 557 :M
.4 .04(knowledge and providing explicit representations for them)J
307 568 :M
1.956 .196(knowledge based systems created within the E)J
f1_9 sf
.779(XPECT)A
307 579 :M
f1_10 sf
1.208 .121(framework can be easier to understand, and because the)J
307 590 :M
.026 .003(separation provides increased modularity, they are easier to)J
307 601 :M
.368 .037(augment and modify.  In this section, we describe how the)J
307 612 :M
.709 .071(program instantiator works to match up and integrate dif-)J
307 623 :M
.397 .04(ferent knowledge sources.  We refer to the matching proc-)J
307 634 :M
2.919 .292(ess we use as )J
379 634 :M
f2_10 sf
2.477 .248(semantic match)J
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1.663 .166( because resources are)J
307 645 :M
1.181 .118(matched up based on their )J
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.411(meaning)A
f1_10 sf
1.101 .11( as opposed to their)J
307 656 :M
.748 .075(syntax.  We argue that this loosens the coupling between)J
307 667 :M
.114 .011(knowledge sources, which can have distinct advantages for)J
307 678 :M
-.249(knowl)A
332 678 :M
-.023(edge re-use and acquisition.)A
295 42 263 131 rC
307 52 :M
f9_9 sf
-.439(capability:)A
304 42 1 1 rF
304 42 1 1 rF
305 42 243 1 rF
548 42 1 1 rF
548 42 1 1 rF
304 43 1 11 rF
548 43 1 11 rF
307 62 :M
f7_9 sf
-.465(  \(find)A
304 54 1 10 rF
548 54 1 10 rF
317 72 :M
-.411(   \(obj \(?t is \(specialization-of)A
304 64 1 10 rF
548 64 1 10 rF
307 82 :M
-.41(                    unloading-time\)\)\))A
304 74 1 10 rF
548 74 1 10 rF
327 92 :M
-.413(      \(of \(?m is \(instance-of)A
304 84 1 10 rF
548 84 1 10 rF
307 102 :M
-.41(                        movement\)\)\)\))A
304 94 1 10 rF
548 94 1 10 rF
307 112 :M
f9_9 sf
-.399(result-type:)A
f7_9 sf
-.415( \(instance-of time-value\))A
304 104 1 10 rF
548 104 1 10 rF
307 122 :M
f9_9 sf
-.399(method:)A
f7_9 sf
-.439( \(calculate)A
304 114 1 10 rF
548 114 1 10 rF
337 132 :M
-.432(     \(obj ?t\))A
304 124 1 10 rF
548 124 1 10 rF
337 142 :M
-.411(     \(of \(available-vehicles ?m\)\)\))A
304 145 1 1 rF
304 145 1 1 rF
305 145 243 1 rF
548 145 1 1 rF
548 145 1 1 rF
304 134 1 11 rF
548 134 1 11 rF
315 160 :M
f1_10 sf
-.016(Figure 2. A method to calculate the unloading time of a)A
405 171 :M
-.03(movement)A
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42 61 :M
f0_11 sf
(4.1 Resolving Goals: Semantic Matching And Goal)S
42 74 :M
(Reformulation)S
42 89 :M
f1_10 sf
.75 .075(In many systems, matching of goals and methods is done)J
42 100 :M
.706 .071(on a fairly syntactic basis.  Lexemes in goals must match)J
42 111 :M
.845 .084(those in methods, and variables are matched by position.)J
42 122 :M
1.22 .122(In E)J
f1_9 sf
.575(XPECT)A
f1_10 sf
1.435 .143(, we have tried to move toward a matching)J
42 133 :M
.763 .076(process that is based on the semantics of the goals rather)J
42 144 :M
.826 .083(than their syntax, and one in which reformulation can be)J
42 155 :M
.775 .077(used to achieve a match when a more direct match is not)J
42 166 :M
-.008(possible.  In )A
94 166 :M
(E)S
f1_9 sf
-.019(XPECT)A
f1_10 sf
-.013(, the ability to provide looser coupling)A
42 177 :M
.146 .015(between goals and method capabilities depends on the way)J
42 188 :M
.453 .045(that they are represented.  As we described in Section 3.2,)J
42 199 :M
.348 .035(both goals and method capabilities are represented as verb)J
42 210 :M
1.09 .109(clauses.  A main verb states what is to be done, using a)J
42 221 :M
.788 .079(number of slots that act as \322cases\323 \(as in case grammar\).)J
42 232 :M
2.136 .214(For matching, both goals and method capabilities are)J
42 243 :M
-.002(translated into Loom concepts that mirror their structure.)A
42 260 :M
f0_10 sf
1.968 .197(Semantic Match.)J
f1_10 sf
.938 .094( One of the mechanisms )J
226 260 :M
.076(E)A
f1_9 sf
.071(XPECT)A
f1_10 sf
.112 .011( pr)J
273 260 :M
-.328(o-)A
42 271 :M
.107 .011(vides to achieve looser coupling is based on Loom\325s classi-)J
42 282 :M
.75 .075(fier.  Given an existing hierarchy of Loom concepts \(and)J
42 293 :M
.83 .083(their definitions\) organized according to the subsumption)J
42 304 :M
.931 .093(\(is-a\) relations between them, the classifier is capable of)J
42 315 :M
.241 .024(figuring out where in the hierarchy a new concept belongs,)J
42 326 :M
.876 .088(based solely on the definitions of the concepts.   To find)J
42 337 :M
.183 .018(possible methods for accomplishing a goal, the Loom cla)J
274 337 :M
-.217(s-)A
42 348 :M
.983 .098(sifier is used to find those methods whose capability de-)J
42 359 :M
-.004(scriptions subsume the goal.  The classifier provides a form)A
42 370 :M
.244 .024(of semantic match, because match is based on the meaning)J
42 381 :M
-.01(of concepts, not on their syntactic form.)A
52 392 :M
( )S
55 392 :M
.157 .016(The semantic matcher finds methods whose capabilities)J
42 403 :M
.158 .016(subsume the posted goal not only when it is given the class)J
42 414 :M
.36 .036(name but also when it is given a description of the type of)J
42 425 :M
.044 .004(object that needs to be matched. An example of this kind of)J
42 436 :M
3.416 .342(matching occurs in our network diagnosis domain.)J
42 447 :M
.258(E)A
f1_9 sf
.241(XPECT)A
f1_10 sf
.836 .084(\325s terminological knowledge contains the defin)J
275 447 :M
-.106(i-)A
42 458 :M
-.084(tion:)A
52 471 :M
f7_9 sf
-.414(lanbridge-23 is a COMPONENT)A
92 481 :M
-.412(that is CONNECTED-TO 2 networks)A
52 497 :M
-.411(CONNECTED-COMPONENT is a COMPONENT)A
82 507 :M
-.411(that is CONNECTED-TO some NETWORK)A
42 521 :M
f1_10 sf
2.542 .254(When E)J
f1_9 sf
.714(XPECT)A
f1_10 sf
1.943 .194( is reasoning with its problem solving)J
42 532 :M
-.021(knowledge about how to achieve the goal:)A
52 545 :M
f7_9 sf
-.429(\(diagnose \(obj)A
42 555 :M
-.409(             \(instance lanbridge-23\)\)\))A
42 569 :M
f1_10 sf
.862 .086(it will be able to match that goal with a method with the)J
42 580 :M
-.006(capability description:)A
52 593 :M
f7_9 sf
-.411(\(diagnose \(obj \(?c is \(instance-of)A
42 603 :M
-.409(                CONNECTED-COMPONENT\)\)\)\))A
42 617 :M
f1_10 sf
.449 .045(because the classifier can figure out that )J
211 617 :M
f7_9 sf
-.288(lanbridge-23)A
f1_10 sf
-.245( is)A
42 628 :M
1.518 .152(a kind of component which is connected to a network,)J
42 639 :M
.055 .005(based on the definitions of )J
152 639 :M
f7_9 sf
-.36(lanbridge-23)A
f1_10 sf
-.259( and )A
f7_9 sf
-.4(CONNECTED-)A
42 650 :M
.233(COMPONENT)A
f7_10 sf
.235 .023( )J
f1_10 sf
.748 .075(above.  This kind of subsumption matching)J
42 661 :M
.567 .057(allows E)J
f1_9 sf
.167(XPECT)A
f1_10 sf
.374 .037( to reason about the semantics of a goal in)J
42 672 :M
-.057(terms of the )A
f2_10 sf
-.073(meaning)A
f1_10 sf
-.059( of its parameters.)A
307 57 :M
f0_10 sf
2.601 .26(Reformulations. )J
f1_10 sf
1.653 .165(The second mechanism that )J
511 57 :M
-.107(E)A
f1_9 sf
-.125(XPECT)A
307 68 :M
f1_10 sf
1.066 .107(provides for looser coupling of goals and methods is re-)J
307 79 :M
1.911 .191(formulation.  Usually if a method cannot be found to)J
307 90 :M
.922 .092(achieve a goal using semantic match, the system will a)J
540 90 :M
-.106(t-)A
307 101 :M
.295 .029(tempt to reformulate the goal and then look for methods to)J
307 112 :M
.406 .041(achieve the resulting goal\(s\).  Goal reformulation involves)J
307 123 :M
.979 .098(decomposing a goal and then assembling a new goal \(or)J
307 134 :M
.19 .019(goals\) by transforming pieces of the original goal based on)J
307 145 :M
.573 .057(their meaning.  To be able to perform goal reformulation,)J
307 156 :M
.367 .037(one needs an explicit, decomposable representation for the)J
307 167 :M
.187 .019(goal, definitions for the terms the goal is constructed from,)J
307 178 :M
-.016(and domain facts to drive the reformulation process.)A
317 189 :M
.253 .025(In E)J
f1_9 sf
.119(XPECT)A
f1_10 sf
.323 .032(, we provide two general types of reformul)J
539 189 :M
-.766(a-)A
307 200 :M
.19 .019(tions, )J
f2_10 sf
.306 .031(conjunctive )J
382 200 :M
f1_10 sf
.816 .082(and )J
401 200 :M
f2_10 sf
.336 .034(disjunctive. )J
f1_10 sf
.368 .037(A conjunctive reformu-)J
307 211 :M
.437 .044(lation involves transforming some goal into a set)J
f2_10 sf
.067 .007( )J
511 211 :M
f1_10 sf
.315 .031(of goals,)J
307 222 :M
.715 .072(where )J
f2_10 sf
.629 .063(each of the goals)J
407 222 :M
f1_10 sf
.857 .086(  in the set must be performed to)J
307 233 :M
.865 .086(achieve the intent of the initial goal. Thus, a conjunctive)J
307 244 :M
.874 .087(reformulation is a form of divide-and-conquer: it splits a)J
307 255 :M
.623 .062(problem up into subpieces that together achieve the origi-)J
307 266 :M
.265 .027(nal goal. As in divide-and-conquer, the system must find a)J
307 277 :M
.231 .023(way of recombining the results of each of the subproblems)J
307 288 :M
.893 .089(back into an appropriate result for the original goal for a)J
307 299 :M
.816 .082(conjunctive reformulation to be successful. A disjunctive)J
307 310 :M
.088 .009(reformulation may also reformulate an initial goal into se)J
538 310 :M
-.328(v-)A
307 321 :M
.474 .047(eral goals, but  at runtime, )J
f2_10 sf
.546 .055(only one of the goals)J
506 321 :M
f1_10 sf
.501 .05(  needs to)J
307 332 :M
-.002(be executed to achieve the intent of the original goal.)A
317 343 :M
.169(E)A
f1_9 sf
.157(XPECT)A
f1_10 sf
.49 .049( provides three types of conjunctive reformula-)J
307 354 :M
-.007(tions: covering, individualization, and set reformulations.)A
317 365 :M
1.164 .116(A )J
329 365 :M
f2_10 sf
.876 .088(covering  )J
f1_10 sf
1.091 .109(reformulation occurs when a goal can be)J
307 376 :M
1.018 .102(transformed into several new goals that together \322cover\323)J
307 387 :M
1.152 .115(the intent of the initial goal. Suppose that the following)J
307 398 :M
.267 .027(goal is posted to estimate how many support personnel are)J
307 409 :M
-.044(required for a COA:)A
307 422 :M
f7_9 sf
-.412(\(estimate \(obj \(specification-of)A
307 432 :M
-.409(                     support-personnel\))A
357 442 :M
-.416(\(for \(instance-of coa\)\)\))A
307 456 :M
f1_10 sf
.245 .024(Using subsumption matching, the system would try to find)J
307 467 :M
2.129 .213(methods for achieving this goal.  Suppose none were)J
307 478 :M
.377 .038(found, because the system had no general method for est)J
540 478 :M
-.106(i-)A
307 489 :M
.223 .022(mating the support personnel needed for a COA.  Suppose,)J
307 500 :M
.61 .061(however, that the system did have methods for estimating)J
307 511 :M
.998 .1(particular types of support personnel needed for a COA.)J
307 522 :M
1.32 .132(How could these methods be found?  When the system)J
307 533 :M
.433 .043(failed initially to find a method, it would then try to refor-)J
307 544 :M
.446 .045(mulate the goal into new goals.  If the domain model con-)J
307 555 :M
-.027(tained the fact:)A
317 568 :M
f7_9 sf
-.41(support-personnel is partitioned by)A
327 578 :M
-.413(airport-support-personnel and)A
327 588 :M
-.415(seaport-support-personnel)A
307 602 :M
f1_10 sf
1.423 .142(the system could reformulate the original goal into two)J
307 613 :M
(new goals:)S
307 626 :M
f7_9 sf
-.412(\(estimate \(obj \(specification-of)A
307 636 :M
-.409(             airport-support-personnel\))A
357 646 :M
-.416(\(for \(instance-of coa\)\)\))A
307 660 :M
f1_10 sf
-.219(and)A
endp
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42 53 :M
f7_9 sf
-.412(\(estimate \(obj \(specification-of)A
42 63 :M
-.432(             )A
132 63 :M
-.415(seaport-support-personnel\))A
92 73 :M
-.416(\(for \(instance-of coa\)\)\))A
42 87 :M
f1_10 sf
.195 .019(The system would then be able to find the two methods for)J
42 98 :M
.177 .018(estimating particular types of support personnel needed for)J
42 109 :M
.33 .033(a COA.   For conjunctive reformulations, part of the refor-)J
42 120 :M
2.701 .27(mulation process involves finding a function for re-)J
42 131 :M
.145 .014(combining the results of each of the reformulations to form)J
42 142 :M
.81 .081(the result for the original goal.  The appropriate function)J
42 153 :M
.071 .007(for combining results is determined by the type of the goal.)J
42 164 :M
-.003(In this example, the system adds the estimates together.)A
52 175 :M
.721 .072(This sort of reformulation process reduces the need for)J
42 186 :M
.4 .04(different parts of the knowledge base to match up exactly,)J
42 197 :M
1.962 .196(which enhances the possibilities for knowledge re-use)J
42 208 :M
.124 .012(across systems. Also, because the system explicitly reasons)J
42 219 :M
.526 .053(through the reformulation process, more of the design can)J
42 230 :M
.336 .034(be captured to support knowledge acquisition. In this case,)J
42 241 :M
1.039 .104(if the user added a new type of support personnel to the)J
42 252 :M
1.542 .154(knowledge base, for example )J
173 252 :M
f7_10 sf
(unloading-support-)S
42 263 :M
.174(personnel)A
f1_10 sf
.383 .038(, then the system would use its record of this)J
42 274 :M
1.085 .108(reformulation to determine that it would be necessary to)J
42 285 :M
1.053 .105(perform the reformulation over again to capture the new)J
42 296 :M
1.074 .107(type of support personnel. )J
157 296 :M
.316(E)A
f1_9 sf
.294(XPECT)A
f1_10 sf
.705 .071( could detect that the)J
42 307 :M
.547 .055(user needs to provide a method for estimating the law e)J
273 307 :M
-.328(n-)A
42 318 :M
.023 .002(forcement personnel needed for a COA. This is an example)J
42 329 :M
-.091(of how )A
73 329 :M
(E)S
f1_9 sf
-.026(XPECT)A
f1_10 sf
-.018(\325s representations are useful to guide KA.)A
42 340 :M
f2_10 sf
1.093 .109(Individualization  )J
f1_10 sf
1.145 .114(reformulations are similar to covering)J
42 351 :M
.703 .07(reformulations, except that they decompose a goal over a)J
42 362 :M
1.214 .121(set of objects into a set of goals over individual objects)J
42 373 :M
.058 .006(\(i.e., instances\).  For example, given the goal of calculating)J
42 384 :M
-.012(the employment personnel of the force modules in a COA:)A
42 408 :M
f7_9 sf
-.411(\(calculate \(obj \(specification-of)A
42 418 :M
-.424(                 )A
152 418 :M
-.418(employment-personnel\)\))A
92 428 :M
-.413( \(of \(force-modules coa-2\)\)\))A
42 442 :M
f1_10 sf
-.017(and the domain fact that:)A
42 455 :M
f7_9 sf
-.412(force-modules of coa-2 are the)A
42 465 :M
-.409(  instances: 3rd-ACR 57th-IMF CVN71-ACN)A
42 479 :M
f1_10 sf
1.556 .156(the system could transform the original goal into three)J
42 490 :M
-.177(goals:)A
42 503 :M
f7_9 sf
-.411(\(calculate \(obj \(specification-of)A
42 513 :M
-.409(                 employment-personnel\)\))A
62 523 :M
( )S
72 523 :M
( )S
82 523 :M
-.414(   \(of \(instance 3rd-ACR\)\)\))A
42 539 :M
-.411(\(calculate \(obj \(specification-of)A
142 549 :M
-.417( employment-personnel\)\))A
62 559 :M
( )S
72 559 :M
-.412(     \(of \(instance 57th-IMF\)\)\))A
42 575 :M
-.411(\(calculate \(obj \(specification-of)A
142 585 :M
-.417( employment-personnel\)\))A
62 595 :M
( )S
72 595 :M
-.412(     \(of \(instance CVN71-ACN\)\)\))A
42 609 :M
f1_10 sf
1.213 .121(where each of these goals corresponds to one of the i)J
273 609 :M
-.328(n-)A
42 620 :M
-.011(stances force modules of coa-2.)A
52 631 :M
-.009(Individualization reformulations are used when the set of)A
42 642 :M
.568 .057(objects denoted by a concept is known at program insta)J
273 642 :M
-.328(n-)A
42 653 :M
.479 .048(tiation time. Sometimes, however, it may be known that a)J
42 664 :M
.348 .035(set of objects will be passed to a method, but the elements)J
42 675 :M
.134 .013(of that set may not be known at program instantiation time,)J
42 686 :M
.576 .058(that is, they may only be known later, at runtime. To deal)J
307 51 :M
.74 .074(with that situation, E)J
f1_9 sf
.263(XPECT)A
f1_10 sf
.605 .061( provides a third kind of con-)J
307 62 :M
1.689 .169(junctive reformulation, the )J
f2_10 sf
.331(set)A
f1_10 sf
1.702 .17( reformulation. When no)J
307 73 :M
.479 .048(method is found to achieve a goal that has a set of objects)J
307 84 :M
.943 .094(in its parameters, E)J
f1_9 sf
.348(XPECT)A
f1_10 sf
.678 .068( tries to solve the goal, at ru)J
538 84 :M
-.328(n-)A
307 95 :M
.205 .02(time, for each element of the set in turn. For example, su)J
538 95 :M
-.328(p-)A
307 106 :M
.536 .054(pose that the following goal is posted to calculate the clo-)J
307 117 :M
-.101(sure date)A
343 114 :M
f1_7 sf
(2)S
346 117 :M
f1_10 sf
-.016( for several movements:)A
307 130 :M
f7_9 sf
-.443(\(calculate)A
337 140 :M
-.41(\(obj \(specification-of closure-date\)\))A
337 150 :M
-.41(\(of \(set-of \(instance-of movement\)\)\)\))A
307 164 :M
f1_10 sf
1.046 .105(and there are no methods that operate on a set of move-)J
307 175 :M
1.023 .102(ments.  E)J
f1_9 sf
.451(XPECT)A
f1_10 sf
1.025 .102( reformulates this goal over a set into a)J
307 186 :M
-.03(goal over an individual movement:)A
307 199 :M
f7_9 sf
-.443(\(calculate)A
337 209 :M
-.409( \(obj \(specification-of closure-date\)\))A
337 219 :M
-.413( \(of \(instance-of movement\)\)\))A
317 233 :M
f1_10 sf
.818 .082(The matcher will return the method for calculating the)J
307 244 :M
.23 .023(closure date of a movement. At execution time, the system)J
307 255 :M
.328 .033(will loop over each of the movements in the set and calcu-)J
307 266 :M
.395 .039(late one by one the closure date of the movements that are)J
307 277 :M
-.028(included in the set.)A
317 288 :M
2.408 .241(Finally, E)J
f1_9 sf
.696(XPECT)A
f1_10 sf
1.538 .154( provides the )J
455 288 :M
f2_10 sf
2.863 .286(input  )J
489 288 :M
f1_10 sf
-.036(reformulation,)A
307 299 :M
1.317 .132(which is a form of )J
f2_10 sf
1.81 .181(disjunctive  )J
447 299 :M
f1_10 sf
1.006 .101(reformulation. It occurs)J
307 310 :M
.508 .051(when no method can be found to handle one of the inputs)J
307 321 :M
.814 .081(to a goal, but several methods can be found that together)J
307 332 :M
.975 .097(will cover the range of possible inputs that will occur at)J
307 343 :M
-.022(runtime. For example, given the goal:)A
307 356 :M
f7_9 sf
-.443(\(calculate)A
317 366 :M
-.41(\(obj \(specification-of closure-date\)\))A
317 376 :M
-.413(\(of \(instance-of movement\)\)\))A
307 390 :M
f1_10 sf
.851 .085(suppose that the method library contained no method for)J
307 401 :M
.437 .044(calculating the closure date of a movement in general, but)J
307 412 :M
.373 .037(there were methods for calculating the closure date of par-)J
307 423 :M
1.122 .112(ticular types of movements and there was a domain fact)J
307 434 :M
-.013(that told the system that:)A
307 447 :M
f7_9 sf
-.407(movement is partitioned by airlift-movement and)A
307 457 :M
-.425(sealift-movement)A
307 471 :M
f1_10 sf
-.01(then the system could create the goals:)A
307 484 :M
f7_9 sf
-.443(\(calculate)A
317 494 :M
-.41(\(obj \(specification-of closure-date\)\))A
317 504 :M
-.41(\(of \(instance-of airlift-movement\)\)\))A
307 520 :M
-.443(\(calculate)A
317 530 :M
-.41(\(obj \(specification-of closure-date\)\))A
317 540 :M
-.41(\(of \(instance-of sealift-movement\)\)\))A
307 554 :M
f1_10 sf
.136 .014(The system would expand methods for each of these goals,)J
307 565 :M
.764 .076(and then create dispatching code that would select which)J
307 576 :M
.242 .024(method to use at runtime, based on the type of the instance)J
307 587 :M
.249 .025(of movement that was actually passed in.  Note that unlike)J
307 598 :M
1.288 .129(a covering reformulation, only one of the branches of a)J
307 609 :M
-.008(disjunctive reformulation needs to be executed.)A
317 620 :M
1.121 .112(In summary, the loose coupling that )J
473 620 :M
(E)S
f1_9 sf
.037(XPECT)A
f1_10 sf
.132 .013( provides)J
307 631 :M
1.167 .117(through semantic match and reformulations is crucial to)J
307 642 :M
.712 .071(our approach to knowledge acquisition.  First, by moving)J
307 653 :M
.2 .02(away from syntactic matching, users can add knowledge to)J
307 667 :M
f3_12 sf
(                                    )S
307 663.48 -.48 .48 451.48 663 .48 307 663 @a
307 675 :M
f1_7 sf
(2)S
310 678 :M
f1_8 sf
.531 .053(The closure date is the date when all the material to be shipped has ar-)J
307 686 :M
-.004(rived at the destination.)A
endp
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42 51 :M
f1_10 sf
.633 .063(a system without being as concerned with issues of form.)J
42 62 :M
.276 .028(This opens up the possibility for greater knowledge re-use.)J
42 73 :M
.913 .091(The second benefit is that by having the program instan-)J
42 84 :M
.387 .039(tiator reason extensively about the process of matching up)J
42 95 :M
.836 .084(goals and methods, more of the design of the knowledge)J
42 106 :M
.891 .089(based system and the interdependencies between parts of)J
42 117 :M
.934 .093(the system can be captured \(and hence, used to form ex-)J
42 128 :M
.907 .091(pectations for knowledge acquisition\).   In reformulating)J
42 139 :M
-.009(goals, the program instantiator develops a rationale for how)A
42 150 :M
.733 .073(a high-level goal can be achieved in terms of lower level)J
42 161 :M
.675 .067(goals.  This sort of processing is often exactly the sort of)J
42 172 :M
.772 .077(reasoning that one wants to use as a basis for knowledge)J
42 183 :M
-.109(acquis)A
68 183 :M
(i)S
71 183 :M
-.014(tion.)A
42 204 :M
f0_11 sf
-.012(4.2 The Program Instantiator:)A
62 217 :M
-.027(Capturing Interdepende)A
177 217 :M
-.053(ncies)A
42 232 :M
f1_10 sf
1.385 .138(The E)J
f1_9 sf
.49(XPECT)A
f1_10 sf
1.6 .16( program instantiator creates a knowledge)J
42 243 :M
.442 .044(based system in a refinement driven fashion.  Initially, the)J
42 254 :M
.009 .001(program instantiator starts with a high level goal that spec)J
275 254 :M
-.106(i-)A
42 265 :M
.822 .082(fies what the knowledge based system is supposed to do.)J
42 276 :M
.361 .036(For example, to create a system for evaluating a particular)J
42 287 :M
-.01(COA, the instantiator would be given the following goal:)A
42 300 :M
f7_9 sf
-.408(\(evaluate \(obj \(instance-of deployment-coa\)\)\))A
42 314 :M
f1_10 sf
.07 .007(This high level goal determines the scope of the knowledge)J
42 325 :M
1.227 .123(based system that E)J
f1_9 sf
.433(XPECT)A
f1_10 sf
.98 .098( will create.  The goal above)J
42 336 :M
-.004(would create a knowledge based system that could evaluate)A
42 347 :M
.347 .035(a deployment-COA\321but nothing else.  On the other hand,)J
42 358 :M
-.042(a goal such as:)A
52 371 :M
f7_9 sf
-.411(\(evaluate \(obj \(instance-of coa\)\)\))A
42 385 :M
f1_10 sf
-.01(would create a knowledge based sy)A
184 385 :M
(s)S
188 385 :M
(tem that could evaluate)S
42 396 :M
.031 .003(any COA that was in E)J
f1_9 sf
.014(XPECT)A
f1_10 sf
.05 .005(\325s knowledge base \(assuming)J
42 407 :M
3.924 .392(appropriate problem sol)J
155 407 :M
4.845 .484(ving knowledge was also)J
42 418 :M
.252 .025(available\).  Thus, a single E)J
f1_9 sf
.102(XPECT)A
f1_10 sf
.278 .028( knowledge base can be)J
42 429 :M
.403 .04(used to create a variety of knowledge based systems, each)J
42 440 :M
.206 .021(scoped to cover a different \(or poss)J
186 440 :M
(i)S
189 440 :M
.231 .023(bly overlapping\) set of)J
42 451 :M
-.089(problems.)A
52 462 :M
.77 .077(References to instances that appear in goals during the)J
42 473 :M
.338 .034(program insta)J
99 473 :M
.695 .069(ntiation phase act as \322place holders\323 for the)J
42 484 :M
1.315 .131(actual data object that will appear when the program is)J
42 495 :M
1.013 .101(executed. The use of a more general or abstract instance)J
42 506 :M
.734 .073(results in the creation of a system that can handle a wide)J
42 517 :M
-.011(range of inputs, i.e., all the instances of that type.)A
52 528 :M
.167 .017(When a goal is posted, the program instantiator searches)J
42 539 :M
1.454 .145(its problem solving knowledge to find a method whose)J
42 550 :M
.764 .076(capability description matches the goal. This matching of)J
42 561 :M
.539 .054(goals and methods is a critical step in the program instan-)J
42 572 :M
.831 .083(tiator\325s reasoning and was the main topic of the previous)J
42 583 :M
1.212 .121(section. How it is done, and the representations that are)J
42 594 :M
.016 .002(used, have a direct effect on how maintainable and reusable)J
42 605 :M
1.038 .104(the knowledge base will be and E)J
f1_9 sf
.405(XPECT)A
f1_10 sf
.93 .093(\325s ability to ac-)J
42 616 :M
-.03(quire new knowledge.)A
52 627 :M
.066 .007(Once a method is selected to achieve the posted goal, the)J
42 638 :M
.562 .056(variables in the method\325s capability description are bound)J
42 649 :M
.94 .094(to corresponding instances and concepts in the goal. The)J
42 660 :M
.733 .073(body of the method is expanded by plugging in the bin)J
273 660 :M
-.328(d-)A
42 671 :M
.386 .039(ings for the variables in the body and then posting its su)J
273 671 :M
-.328(b-)A
42 682 :M
.157 .016(goals. During this process, if any of the slots of an instance)J
307 51 :M
.319 .032(are accessed by the method, those accesses are recorded in)J
307 62 :M
.983 .098(the design history.  This record of the interdependencies)J
307 73 :M
.75 .075(between factual knowledge \(instances\) and problem solv-)J
307 84 :M
.869 .087(ing knowledge is later used to form the expectations that)J
307 95 :M
.526 .053(guide knowledge acquisition. For example, if the program)J
307 106 :M
.55 .055(instantiator notes that it uses a method that requires infor-)J
307 117 :M
.466 .047(mation about the berths of a port, then when a new port is)J
307 128 :M
.364 .036(entered, the knowledge acquisition routines will know that)J
307 139 :M
.696 .07(information about the berths of that new port needs to be)J
307 150 :M
-.075(added.)A
317 161 :M
2.134 .213(A key advantage for knowledge acquisition of E)J
f1_9 sf
1.214(X-)A
307 172 :M
.216(PECT)A
f1_10 sf
.669 .067(\325s approach is that the program instantiator explores)J
307 183 :M
f2_10 sf
.64 .064(all )J
f1_10 sf
1.199 .12( the possible execution paths through the knowledge)J
307 194 :M
1.141 .114(based systems it creates. It thus captures all the interde-)J
307 205 :M
1.208 .121(pendencies between factual and problem solving knowl-)J
307 216 :M
.7 .07(edge, something which is not possible to do by analyzing)J
307 227 :M
.064 .006(execution traces, for example, since each analysis will only)J
307 238 :M
-.008(cover one execution path through the system.)A
317 249 :M
1.011 .101(Figure 3 shows a partial view of how the program i)J
538 249 :M
-.328(n-)A
307 260 :M
1.022 .102(stantiator expands goals. The top-level goal given to the)J
307 271 :M
.064 .006(system is to evaluate a deployment course of action. This is)J
307 282 :M
1.083 .108(the goal posted in node n1. The matcher finds a method)J
307 293 :M
.971 .097(whose capability can achieve this goal, and the method's)J
307 304 :M
1.662 .166(capability, the bindings, and the method's body are re-)J
307 315 :M
.815 .081(corded in the node.  After the bindings are substituted in)J
307 326 :M
.2 .02(the method body,  the subgoal of evaluating the transporta-)J
307 337 :M
.749 .075(tion factors of the COA would arise, and successive goal)J
307 348 :M
-.009(expansions would produce the goals in nodes n2 and n6.)A
317 359 :M
.498 .05(Notice that even though the method used to achieve the)J
307 370 :M
.508 .051(goal in n1 can be used for any kind of COA, the bindings)J
307 381 :M
.579 .058(specify that is used for deployment COAs and the system)J
307 392 :M
.912 .091(propagates this more specific type as it expands the su)J
538 392 :M
-.328(b-)A
307 403 :M
.113 .011(goals.  When no method is found to match a goal, E)J
f1_9 sf
.062(XPECT)A
307 414 :M
f1_10 sf
.773 .077(tries to reformulate the goal and try matching again.  For)J
307 425 :M
1.2 .12(example, the goal in node n2 is achieved by a covering)J
307 436 :M
-.014(reformulation of the object parameter of the goal.)A
317 447 :M
.495 .049(During the process of expanding the goals, the program)J
307 458 :M
.958 .096(instantiator also keeps track of the interdependencies be-)J
307 469 :M
1.065 .106(tween the different components of the knowledge bases.)J
307 480 :M
.312 .031(Let us look more closely at node n6 in Figure 3.  The goal)J
307 491 :M
1.245 .125(of calculating the closure date of a deployment COA is)J
307 502 :M
.298 .03(achieved with a method whose body indicates that the sys-)J
307 513 :M
.02 .002(tem must calculate the closure date of all the movements of)J
307 524 :M
.726 .073(the COA.  Since )J
f7_10 sf
.359(movements)A
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.464 .046( is a slot \(or )J
491 524 :M
f2_10 sf
.281 .028(role )J
511 524 :M
f1_10 sf
.522 .052(in Loom)J
307 535 :M
.023 .002(terminology\) of the concept )J
422 535 :M
f7_10 sf
.037(COA)A
f1_10 sf
.098 .01(, the system annotates that)J
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1.145 .114(domain.  By deriving the interdependencies between the)J
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endp
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.32 .032(method.  E)J
f1_9 sf
.125(XPECT)A
f1_10 sf
.272 .027( also presents to the user with a menu of)J
42 216 :M
.692 .069(all the roles that are defined for movements as options to)J
42 227 :M
.074 .007(be used in the method. The knowledge acquisition dialogue)J
42 238 :M
.562 .056(is updated if the underlying interdependencies change.  In)J
42 249 :M
.461 .046(this case, if the definition of the role "priority" is changed)J
42 260 :M
.016 .002(so that it is defined for a COA then the system would allow)J
42 271 :M
-.015(the user to use the priority of a COA.)A
136 294 :M
f0_12 sf
-.109(Summary)A
42 309 :M
f1_10 sf
.116 .012(In real world situations, users need to be able to adapt their)J
42 320 :M
.849 .085(tools: no one has the foresight to envision all the know)J
275 320 :M
-.106(l-)A
42 331 :M
1.021 .102(edge a system might need. Our research on )J
230 331 :M
.189(E)A
f1_9 sf
.636 .064(XPECT )J
269 331 :M
f1_10 sf
-.383(ad-)A
42 342 :M
.651 .065(dresses that problem. By separating the different kinds of)J
42 353 :M
1.56 .156(knowledge that go into a knowledge based system and)J
42 364 :M
.099 .01(automatically deriving the interdependencies between them)J
42 375 :M
.189(E)A
f1_9 sf
.636 .064(XPECT )J
81 375 :M
f1_10 sf
1.219 .122(guides a user in modifying a knowledge based)J
42 386 :M
-.046(system.)A
42 407 :M
f0_11 sf
-.01(Acknowledgments)A
42 422 :M
f1_10 sf
1.284 .128(The authors would like to thank the current and former)J
42 433 :M
.501 .05(members of the E)J
f1_9 sf
.185(XPECT)A
f1_10 sf
.524 .052( and EES projects, especially Pe-)J
42 444 :M
.948 .095(dro Gonzalez, Bing Leng, Vibhu Mittal, Johanna Moore,)J
42 455 :M
1.1 .11(Robert Neches, Cecile Paris, Ramesh Patil, and Marcelo)J
42 466 :M
.367 .037(Tallis for their hard work and thoughtful insights that con-)J
42 477 :M
-.027(tributed greatly to this research.)A
52 488 :M
.387 .039(The work described here has been supported by the Ad-)J
42 499 :M
3.998 .4(vanced Research Projects Agency under contracts)J
42 510 :M
.818 .082(DABT63-91-C-0025 and DABT63-95-C-0059, and under)J
42 521 :M
-.082(NASA Ames coo)A
112 521 :M
-.022(perative agreement number NCC 2-520.)A
42 542 :M
f0_11 sf
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