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Johann Joachim Winckelmann   9 December 1717 – 8 June 1768 was a German art historian and archaeologist
He was a pioneering Hellenist who first articulated the difference between Greek GrecoRoman and Roman art
Many consider him the father of the discipline of art history
He was one of the first to separate Greek Art into periods and time classifications
His would be the decisive influence on the rise of the neoclassical movement during the late 18th century
His writings influenced not only a new science of archaeology and art history but Western painting sculpture literature and even philosophy
Winckelmanns History of Ancient Art 1764 was one of the first books written in German to become a classic of European literature
His subsequent influence on Lessing Herder Goethe Hölderlin Heine Nietzsche George and Spengler has been provocatively called the Tyranny of Greece over Germany
Today Humboldt University of Berlins Winckelmann Institute is dedicated to the study of classical archaeology
Winckelmann was homosexual and open homoeroticism informed his writings on aesthetics
This was recognized by his contemporaries such as Goethe
Winckelmann was born in poverty in Stendal in the Margraviate of Brandenburg
His father Martin Winckelmann worked as a cobbler while his mother Anna Maria Meyer was the daughter of a weaver
Winckelmanns early years were full of hardship but his academic interests pushed him forward
He nonetheless devoted himself privately to Greek art and literature and followed the lectures of Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten who coined the term aesthetics
With the intention of becoming a physician in 1740 Winckelmann attended medical classes at Jena
He also taught languages
Moreover his means were insufficient his salary was so low that he had to rely on his students parents for free meals
He was thus obliged to accept a tutorship near Magdeburg
While tutor for the powerful Lamprecht family he fell into unrequited love with the handsome Lamprecht son
This was one of a series of such loves throughout his life
His enthusiasm for the male form excited Winckelmanns budding admiration of ancient Greek and Roman sculpture
In 1748 Winckelmann wrote to Count Heinrich von Bünau
In the same year Winckelmann was appointed secretary of von Bünaus library at Nöthnitz near Dresden
The library contained some 40000 volumes
To leave behind the spartan atmosphere of Prussia came as a great relief for him
Winckelmanns major duty involved assisting von Bünau in writing a book on the Holy Roman Empire and helping collect material for it
During this period he made several visits to the collection of antiquities at Dresden but his description of its best paintings remained unfinished
Winckelmann subsequently exercised a powerful influence over Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
The work won warm admiration not only for the ideas it contained but for its literary style
It made Winckelmann famous and was reprinted several times and soon translated into French
In 1751 the papal nuncio and Winckelmanns future employer Alberico Archinto visited Nöthnitz and in 1754 Winckelmann joined the Roman Catholic Church
Goethe concluded that Winckelmann was a pagan but his conversion ultimately opened the doors of the papal library to him
Winckelmann arrived in Rome in November 1755
He was named librarian to Cardinal Passionei who was impressed by Winckelmanns beautiful Greek writing
Winckelmann also became librarian to Cardinal Archinto and received much kindness from Cardinal Passionei
His friend Mengs became the channel through which Winckelmanns ideas were realized in art and spread around Europe
With imitation he did not mean slavish copying
what is imitated if handled with reason may assume another nature as it were and become ones own
 Neoclassical artists attempted to revive the spirit as well as the forms of ancient Greece and Rome
Mengss contribution in this was considerable—he was widely regarded as the greatest living painter of his day
The French painter JacquesLouis David met Mengs in Rome 1775–80 and was introduced through him to the artistic theories of Winckelmann
Earlier while in Rome Winckelmann met the Scottish architect Robert Adam whom he influenced to become a leading proponent of neoclassicism in architecture
Winckelmanns ideals were later popularized in England through the reproductions of Josiah Wedgwoods Etruria factory 1782
Royal Castle in Warsaw
In 1758 and 1762 he visited Naples to observe the archaeological excavations being conducted at Pompeii and Herculaneum
 Winckelmanns poverty may have played a part the trade in antiquities was an expensive and speculative game
In 1763 with Albanis advocacy he was appointed Pope Clement XIIIs Prefect of Antiquities
Winckelmann contributed various essays to the Bibliothek der schönen Wissenschaften and in 1766 published his Versuch einer Allegorie
The plates in this work are representations of objects which had either been falsely explained or not explained at all
Figurehead from the title page of Geschichte der Kunst des Alterhums Vol
1 1776
 This was the first work to define in the art of a civilization an organic growth maturity and decline
Winckelmann sets forth both the history of Greek art and of Greece
He presents a glowing picture of the political social and intellectual conditions which he believed tended to foster creative activity in ancient Greece
Winckelmann in luxurious undress by Anton von Maron 1768 an engraving of an Antinous lies before him Schlossmuseum Weimar
In 1768 Winckelmann journeyed north over the Alps but the Tyrol depressed him and he decided to return to Italy
Arcangeli had thought that he was only un uomo di poco conto a man of little account
Arcangeli was executed a month later by breaking on the wheel
Winckelmann was buried in the churchyard of Trieste Cathedral
and  documented the last week of Winckelmanns life  translated the Italian document the socalled Mordakte Winckelmann into German
Winckelmanns writings are key to understanding the modern European discovery of ancient sometimes idealized Greece neoclassicism and the doctrine of art as imitation Nachahmung
Winckelmann stands at an early stage of the transformation of taste in the late 18th century
From these scholars obtained their first real information about the excavations at Pompeii
His major work Geschichte der Kunst des Alterthums 1764 The History of Ancient Art deeply influenced contemporary views of the superiority of Greek art
It was translated into French in 1766 and later into English and Italian
To the still existing works of art he applied a minute empirical scrutiny
Many of his conclusions based on inadequate evidence of Roman copies would be modified or reversed by subsequent researchers
To Winckelmanns contemporaries it came as a revelation and it exercised a profound influence on the best minds of the age
Winckelmann statue Winckelmannplatz Stendal Germany
pedestal of Winckelmann statue Winckelmannplatz Stendal Germany
Gedanken über die nachahmung der griechischen Werke in der Malerei und Bildhauerkunst 1885
 Kleine Schriften Vorreden Entwürfe Berlin 1968
First edition of only 50 copies 1755 2nd ed
1756
The plates in this work are representations of objects which had either been falsely explained or not explained at all
Begründer der klassischen Archäologie und modernen Kunstwissenschaften
 2014
Weimarer Verlagsgesellschaft
Harloe Winckelmann and the invention of Antiquity History and Aesthetics in the Age of Altertumswissenschaft 2013
Haupt Die zwei Federn des Johann Winckelmann
Oder Wer sein Glück erkennt und nutzt der ist es wert nonfictional book 2012
Druckzone Cottbus GmbH
I 2006 pp
nbsp26–30 ISSN 09361944
 Leuven 2008  full text pdf with exhaustive bibliography
M
Fridrich Sehnsucht nach dem Verlorenen Winckelmanns Asthetik und ihre fruhe Rezeption 2003
Testa Winckelmann e linvenzione della storia darte 1999
Potts Flesh and the Ideal Winckelmann and the origins of art history 1994
Pommier ed
 Winckelmann La Naissance de lhistoire de lart
 1991
M
Sweet The Personal the Political and the Aesthetic Johann Joachim Winckelmanns German Enlightenment life in Journal of Homosexuality 18 1988 p
nbsp152
Constantine Early Greek travellers and the Hellenic ideal 1984 p
nbsp85–146
Parry Belvedere Hercules in I
Parry Hand to mouth 1972 reprinted in I
Parry Speak Silence Essays 1988 p
nbsp156–174
Alfred A
Knopf LOC 70118711
Honour Neoclassicism 1968
M
Butler The Tyranny of Greece over Germany 1935
in W
Pater Studies in the History of the Renaissance 1873 and The Renaissance Studies in Art and Poetry 1877
W
von Goethe Winckelmann und sein Jahrhundert 1805
net
Najaf 2017
Najaf 2017
Najaf  BGN AnNajaf or An Najaf Al Ashraf  is a city in centralsouth Iraq about 160nbspkm 100 mi south of Baghdad
Its estimated population in 2013 was 1000000 people
It is the capital of Najaf Governorate
AnNajaf is considered sacred by Shia Muslims
AnNajaf is renowned as the site of the tomb of Caliph ‘Alī ibn Abī Tālib
Sunnis consider ‘Ali the fourth Rashidun rightly guided Caliphs
The city is now a center of pilgrimage throughout the Shiite Islamic world
It is estimated that only Mecca and Medina receive more Muslim pilgrims
The Imam ‘Ali Mosque is housed in a grand structure with a gold gilded dome and many precious objects in the walls
Nearby is the WadiusSalaam cemetery the largest in the world
The Najaf seminary is one of the most important teaching centres in the Islamic world
Ayatollah Khomeini lectured there from 1964 to 1978
Many of the leading figures of the new Islamic movement that emerged in Iraq Iran and Lebanon in the 1970s had studied at Najaf
Najaf has a desert climate
This climate is considered to be BWh according to the Köppen climate classification
The average annual temperature is 23
6nbsp°C
The rainfall here averages 97nbspmm
The area of AnNajaf is located 30nbspkm south of the ancient city of Babylon and 400nbspkm north of the ancient city of Ur
The city itself was reputedly founded in 791 AD by the Abbasid Caliph Harūn arRashīd as a shrine to ‘Alī bin Abī Ṭālib
View of the city of Najaf ca
1914
Men at Najaf some with selfinflicted wounds during a religious festival ca
1914
Masjid alImam ‘Ali in 1932
Archaeological discoveries show the existence of a populace dating back to the times of Jesus
Najaf possesses one of the largest burial grounds in the vicinity for Christians
The centuries following have proven this to also be a city with a multicultural and religious folk
We have found indications of Christianity on the graves through representations of crosses and stones with Christlike engravings
There are also relics that date back to the Sassanid period
Also discovered in the excavation was proof of a thriving glass industry
Pots were decorated with the cross
as well as Hebrew writings indicating a community of religious coexistence
According to legend the body of ‘Ali was placed on a camel which was driven from Kufah
The camel stopped a few miles west of the city where the body was secretly buried
No tomb was raised and nobody knew of the burial place except for a few trusted people
On inquiry as to why the place was a sanctuary Harūn arRashīd he was told that it was the burial place of ‘Ali
Harūn arRashīd ordered a mausoleum to be built on the spot and in due course the town of Najaf grew around the mausoleum
During this period Najaf was relatively a very small town with only few people and was called Meshhed Ali
Rev
Samuel Lee in his translation of Ibn Battutas Arabic Rihla mentions the following
We next proceeded to a town called Meshhed Ali where the grave of Ali is thought to be
It is a handsome place and well peopled all the inhabitants are of the Shiah sect
There is no governor here except a sort of tribune
The inhabitants consist chiefly of rich and brave merchants
About the gardens are plastered walls adorned with paintings and within them are carpets couches and lamps of gold and silver
The garden is also famous for its miracles and hence its believed that the grave of Ali is there
They are placed over the grave soon after sunset
This is a matter well known among them I heard it from a creditable person but was not present at one of those nights
I saw however several such afflicted persons who had not yet received but were looking forwards for the advantages of this night of revival
In the 16th century Najaf was conquered by the Ottoman Empire
The Safavid dynasty of Iran maintained continuous interest to this Shia site
During the Ottoman–Safavid War 1623–39 they were twice able to capture the city but lost it again to the Ottomans in 1638
The number of inhabited houses in the city had plummeted from 3000 to just 30 by the start of the 16th century
When the Portuguese traveller Pedro Texeira passed through Najaf in 1604 he found the city in ruins inhabited by little more than 500 people
During the 18th century the scholarly life of Najaf came to be dominated by Farsispeaking ‘Ulema’  Scholars from Iran
The water shortages were finally resolved in 1803 when the Euphrates made its way to the city once again
These longterm efforts rendered successful the construction of the Hindiyya Canal in 1793 which further shifted the flow of the Euphrates
These hydrological shifts were to have religious implications
Most notable was the consolidation and spread of Shiism
As the shrine city of Najaf gained access to water again its notables and holy men began to wield considerable power in the area
The Ottomans were expelled in an uprising in 1915 following which the city fell under the rule of the British Empire
In retaliation the British besieged the city and cut off its water supply
The rebellion was put down and the rule of the sheikhs was forcibly ended
During the 2003 invasion of Iraq Najaf was a key target of the invading United States forces
The city was encircled during heavy fighting on March 26 2003 and was captured on April 3 2003
This uprising led to the American troops arriving in the city in the wake of the Spanish withdrawal
In August 2004 heavy fighting broke out again between US forces and AlSadrs Mahdi Army
The battle lasted three weeks and ended when senior Iraqi cleric Grand Ayatollah ‘Alī AlSīstānī negotiated an end to the fighting
Published in the 19th20th centuries
Published in the 21st century
Adeliza of Louvain sometimes known in England as Adelicia of Louvain also called Adela and Aleidis c
1103 – 23 April 1151 was Queen of England from 1121 to 1135 as the second wife of King Henry I
She was the daughter of Godfrey I Count of Louvain
Henry was some 35 years older than his bride who was about 18 when they married
He already had children though no surviving son from his first marriage to Matilda of Scotland as well as several illegitimate ones
As his second marriage produced no children he was to leave his throne to his daughter the Empress Matilda
Adelizas marriage seems to have been successful apart from the failure to produce a new heir
Adeliza of Louvain was born in 1105 in Leuven presentday Belgium
She was renowned for her beauty reflected in the epithet ‘the fair maiden of Brabant
Put adornment aside for nature provides your adornment
”
Adelizas brother Joscelin of Louvain married the heiress to the Percy fortune
He is often referred to as an “opportunist”
However Henry’s need for a new male heir expedited the marriage plans and the couple wed on 24 January 1121
Apparently in addition to her beauty Henry was also attracted to Adeliza as a wife because she was a descendant of Charlemagne
Henry of Huntingdon mentions the royal couple in his Historia Anglorum stating that the new queen accompanied Henry to London at Pentecost
Adeliza appears to have travelled extensively with Henry probably to increase the chances of her conception
Despite their close contact however Adeliza and Henry never produced a child
Unlike Henry’s first wife Matilda Adeliza appears to have played a very passive role in the administration of the kingdom
King Henry
At the time secular books in the French or AngloNorman vernacular were extremely popular a trend given impetus by wealthy aristocratic women like Adeliza
Philippe de Thaon an AngloNorman poet dedicated his zoological treatise known as the Bestiary to the queen
Philippe de Thaon Has distilled into a French treatise
The Bestiary A book in Latin
For the honour of a jewel Who is an outstandingly beautiful woman
And she is courtly and wise Of good customs and generous
She is called ‘Aaliz’ Queen is she crowned
She is the queen of England May her soul never know trouble
Listen to what we find About her name in Hebrew
‘Aaliz’ is her name ‘Praise of God’ is
In Hebrew truly ‘Aaliz’ laus of God
I do not dare give further praise Lest envy take me
But so that she may be remembered And praised forever more
I wish to compose this book May God be present at its beginning
The Bestiary would have been amply illustrated and was intended to be read page by page not all at once like a poem
Many other works that Adeliza commissioned were similar in structure to the Bestiary including the now lost Life of King Henry by David
When Henry died on 1 December 1135 Adeliza retired temporarily to the Benedictine convent of Wilton Abbey near Salisbury
She was present at the dedication of Henrys tomb at Reading Abbey on the first anniversary of his death
At about that time she founded a leper hospital dedicated to Saint Giles at Fugglestone St Peter Wiltshire